Indian Journal of Advanced Physics (IJAP)
The Indian Journal of Advanced Physics (IJAP) has ISSN 2582-8983 (online), an open-access, peer-reviewed, periodical half-yearly international journal, which is published by Lattice Science Publication (LSP) in April and October. Authors can electronically submit articles throughout the year using the Article Submission System. Authors can format their article either in (i) a single-column format or (ii) as per the journal template. The submitted articles should not have been previously published or are currently under consideration for publication elsewhere. The journal does not accept brief or short notes for publication. The editors retain the right to reject any articles that lack quality or originality without sending them for review. All articles must fall within the journal’s scope and will undergo a double-anonymized peer-review process. Authors must confirm that they have read and understood the content of their submitted article and ensure that it meets acceptable English grammar and usage standards. To help with the proofreading process, authors can use tools like Grammarly or similar applications. As an open-access journal, authors must pay an Article Processing Charge (APC) to publish their articles and retain copyright. Additionally, authors should familiarise themselves with the editorial and publishing policies of the journal.
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A Unified Mathematical Framework for the Fundamental Mechanism of Space-Time, Mass, Gravity, and Quantum Phenomena Derived from the Universal Law
This work has discovered the reasons behind the workings of our universe by identifying the missing link that our great scientists recognised and are still seeking. The work does not dismissthe work done until nowto progress physics and cosmology to a level where modern day technology has been developed however, this work does ascertain that there is a deeper reason for matterto behave the way it doesin our observable universe; motion of matter, gravitational forces, quantum behaviour, Dark matter, Dark Energy all have a single reason behind them which causes them to behave in a certain way which has become difficult for current human understanding to explain. This work is the child of multiple thought experiments that led to the discovery of a universal law that all matter, or groups of matter, follow. When this universal law was applied to every state of matter or group of matter, the mathematics behind the workings of the universe emerged naturally and logically. This research was conducted to elevate current human understanding of the workings of the universe and to provide reasonsfor many unexplained phenomena in our cosmos, like wave-particle duality, dark energy, dark matter, black holes, etc. [8]. The universal law, when represented in mathematical form and derived from current understanding of gravitational force, kinetic energy, rest mass energy, etc., explicitly gives rise to a larger scale mathematical representation which matches the observations made by humans, but couldn’t explain them and had to develop new theoretical frameworks to be able to explain those observations [9]. The Universal law, however, links the classical gravity to higher-order forces present in our cosmos without needing a reason for bringing in unexplained dark matter/ dark energy phenomena [2]. And accurately provides explanations and reasoning behind black holes and quantum behavior.
Copyright (c) 2026 Akshay Vijay Gaikwad (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Falsifiability of Newton’s Laws of Motion and Special Theory of Relativity – An Analytical Approach based Solution in Physics
Newton’s laws of motion (NLM) and Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity (STR) form the conceptual backbone of classical and modern physics, respectively. Despite their extensive empirical success, both frameworks are typically formulated without explicit consideration of thermodynamic constraints such as temperature evolution, system openness, and energy dissipation. This work investigates the thermodynamic consistency of NLM and STR by analytically examining their foundational equations under closed, open, and adiabatic system conditions using established principles from classical mechanics, kinetic theory of gases, and thermodynamics. The analysis demonstrates that Newton’s equations of motion implicitly assume constant acceleration and unbounded time evolution, which, when applied to open systems, violate energy conservation and imply behaviour akin to perpetual motion. By explicitly incorporating temperature as a dynamical variable and recognising its intrinsic coupling to time, modified equations of motion are derived for closed thermodynamic systems. These equations retain the functional form of Newtonian relations but introduce a bounded temperature increment, ΔT, thereby ensuring compliance with the first and second laws of thermodynamics and preventing divergence in velocity, displacement, or work. A similar thermodynamic examination of STR is conducted, focusing on relativistic length contraction, time dilation, and the mass–energy relation E = mc2 . When interpreted in terms of macroscopic or open systems, these relations imply the simultaneous divergence of mass and energy at high velocities, thereby contradicting conservation principles. However, when reformulated for isolated or adiabatic ideal-gas systems, analogous relativistic relationships emerge naturally from mechanical compression and temperature variation, without requiring inertial-frame abstractions or unphysical infinities. The study further demonstrates that the traditional interpretation of E = mc2 as unrestricted mass–energy interconvertibility is thermodynamically inconsistent. Instead, the equation is shown to represent the mechanical work required to accelerate a mass toward relativistic speeds within a finite time, thereby highlighting the physical impossibility of reaching the speed of light for finite-energy systems. Overall, this work establishes that both NLM and STR remain conditionally valid only within restricted thermodynamic domains. By explicitly incorporating temperature, system boundaries, and energy conservation, the analysis clarifies the physical limits of these foundational theories and provides a thermodynamically consistent reinterpretation of classical and relativistic dynamics.
Copyright (c) 2026 Nishant Sahdev, Dr. Chinmoy Bhattacharya (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Multiscale Modelling of Galaxy Collisions with Integrated Resistive MHD and Stellar Feedback
Predicting the relative roles of gravitational collapse and stellar feedback in star formation within extreme, low-density environments—such as the tidal tails produced by galaxy mergers—remains a fundamental challenge. These environments provide unique natural laboratories for testing star formation theories under conditions analogous to the early universe. However, existing models often fail to reconcile large-scale gravitational dynamics with localized feedback processes in such diffuse media. To bridge this gap, a reproducible, open-sciencebased theoretical framework is presented that integrates public, multi-wavelength observational datasets with high-resolution **resistive magnetohydrodynamic (MHD)** simulations. Our methodology is built on archival data from three flagship observatories: the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), which is used to study young stellar populations and newly formed clusters. This telescope provides high-resolution infrared imaging and spectroscopy, enabling precise measurements of stellar ages, masses, and dust extinction. - Atacama Large Millimetre/submillimetre Array (ALMA): used to trace cold molecular gas and analyze kinematic structures. These public datasets are used as quantitative constraints in resistive magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) simulations that incorporate magnetic fields, radiative cooling, sub-grid star formation, and stellar feedback, ensuring that the simulation results remain consistent with observational reality. Using the open-source code **PLUTO**, we model the formation of tidal structures while resolving key plasma physics, including **localized resistivity** to capture magnetic reconnection effects. “Synthetic observations” are directly generated from simulation outputs using radiative transfer post-processing, enabling point-by-point comparison with real data. To rigorously quantify agreement between model and observation, we implement a **Bayesian inference framework** that propagates observational uncertainties and yields posterior constraints on key parameters (e.g., magnetic field strength, feedback coupling efficiency). Through this integrated pipeline, the aim is to determine whether star formation efficiency in lowdensity tails is regulated by gravitational confinement from tidal compression or by localized feedback. Expected outcomes include quantitative estimates of virial stability parameters for observed gas complexes, spatial correlation analyses to gauge feedback coupling efficiency, and statistically robust constraints on uncertain model parameters. This framework is fully reproducible: all data are public, simulation codes are opensource, and analysis scripts will be archived with a DOI upon acceptance. By transparently linking theory and observation, this approach provides a methodological blueprint for studying star formation in interacting systems, with direct implications for galaxy evolution models and future observational strategies.
Copyright (c) 2026 Mahdiyeh Khalili (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Magnetized Astrophysical Plasma: Three- Dimensional Resistive MHD Simulations of Gradient-Driven Anisotropic Dissipation in AGN Jet Feedback
Understanding how energy is transported in hot, magnetized plasmas surrounding galaxies remains a central challenge in astrophysics. While turbulence and magnetic reconnection have been widely studied, the role of entropy gradients has typically been treated as passive. In this work, we demonstrate—using high-resolution three-dimensional resistive magnetohydrodynamic (RMHD) simulations of AGN jet feedback in the elliptical galaxy NGC 720—that entropy gradients actively organize plasma dynamics and drive anisotropic energy dissipation. We introduce a novel diagnostic, the Normalized Entropy Gradient (NEG), defined as N(\mathbf{r}) = \frac {l_0 |\nabla S|} {S_0}, \tag {1} where S = k_ {\rm B} T n_e^ {-2/3} is the specific entropy. Our simulations reveal coherent vortical structures strongly aligned with magnetic field lines, quantified by an alignment parameter \mathcal{A} = 0.76 \pm 0.07 (corresponding to a mean angle of 28^\circ \pm 4^\circ). This alignment is sustained only when anisotropic thermal conduction (Braginskii model) and localized resistivity are included in the total pressure relation P_ {\rm tot} = P_ {\rm gas} + |\mathbf{B}|^2/2. We identify the underlying mechanism as Gradient-Driven Anisotropic Dissipation (GDAD), wherein entropy gradients preferentially channel energy along magnetic field lines via field-aligned heat flux and localized Ohmic dissipation. The energy budget shows thermal energy dominates (3.2 \pm 0.3 \times 10^ {59} erg), but magnetic (0.9 \pm 0.1 \times 10^ {59} erg) and kinetic components (1.1 \pm 0.2 \times 10^ {59} erg) play critical roles in sustaining anisotropy. Our results reproduce multi-wavelength signatures observed by Chandra (ObsID: 318) and VLA radio data within uncertainties, and GDAD provides testable predictions for future X-ray missions such as XRISM and Athena. All simulation data and analysis scripts will be publicly archived with a persistent DOI upon acceptance, ensuring full reproducibility. This work establishes, for the first time, that entropy gradients are primary drivers—not passive tracers—in the self-organization of astrophysical plasmas via the GDAD feedback loop.
The Classical Electron Radius, the Electron Compton Wavelength and the Running Fine Structure Constant
The fine structure constant variation as a function of the electromagnetic interaction strength is investigated and shown to evolve from the canonical standard 1/137 to 1 at distances of the order of the classical electron radius, i.e. at a typical strong interaction value. This confirms the outcome at Planck scales, but it happens even later in the Universe's evolution, closer to the present time, although it will also be experimentally unattainable. The result is simply derived by imposing quantum effects, i.e. the Compton wavelength at the classical electron radius, in analogy with the procedure by which the corresponding Compton wavelength constrains the Schwarzschild radius.
Copyright (c) 2026 Paolo Christillin (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Unification of the Fundamental Equations in Physics: A Single Functional Relation Between Mass and Volume
Since the inception of classical physics, scientists worldwide have continually introduced new equations. Notably, the three fundamental physical variables—mass, time, and temperature—have consistently played central roles in these formulations. However, these variables are often treated as ‘abstract’ quantities, particularly because their physical dimensions, about length (L), have seldom been explicitly addressed. In this research, a novel thermodynamic approach has been employed to investigate the dimensional relationships between time (t), mass (M), and temperature (T) and length (L). The new dimensions revealed for these variables have the potential to reshape both modern and classical physics. The equation mass = density × volume holds profound significance in physics. Density, in this context, serves as an indirect measure of a material’s cohesiveness, or orderliness; among materials of varying density, the one with the greater density will house more molecules within a fixed volume, and is thus more cohesive. Density is, therefore, an index of order. Conversely, increasing the volume of a given mass—such as by introducing air voids or foams—decreases density, thereby diminishing cohesiveness and increasing disorder or randomness. Density, then, is the “creator” of order, while volume gives rise to disorder or randomness. Thus, mass, being the product of density and volume, is inherently a composite variable that embodies both order and disorder. This article demonstrates that the contribution of density (order) outweighs that of volume (randomness), making mass, as a hybrid parameter, primarily indicative of order. Every physical, mechanical, or chemical process is fundamentally an interplay of order and disorder, manifested in the equation mass = density × volume. Core principles of physics—including the laws of motion, mass-energy equivalence, ideal gas behaviour, wave-particle duality, the uncertainty principle, and the quantum mechanics of microscopic particles—can all be understood as manifestations of these order–disorder phenomena. Consequently, all fundamental equations in physics may ultimately converge upon, or be unified with, the relation mass = density × volume. Such unification or convergence can only be fully understood once the three principal variables—mass, time, and temperature—lose their abstraction and are properly embodied. In this research, we offer a foundational embodiment for these variables, opening new horizons for modern physics.
Thermodynamic Compactness & Hard-Core Volume (HCV)
Copyright (c) 2025 Nishant Sahdev, Chinmoy Bhattacharya (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
The understanding of time in physics has undergone profound changes from classical mechanics to relativity and quantum mechanics. In Newtonian mechanics, time is regarded as an absolute and uniform passage, independent of external phenomena, and is a fundamental parameter of the equations of motion. Relativity emphasises the relativity of time and its close connection with the motion of matter, proposes an operational definition of the simultaneity of distant events, and develops Minkowski’s view of spacetime and Riemannian curved spacetime. In quantum mechanics, time is often regarded as a parameter external to the microscopic system rather than an observable quantity. Although some scholars have attempted to introduce time operators, they have not yet gained widespread recognition. Overall, the understanding of time in physics continues to deepen with the development of theory. Still, the unity of classical and quantum mechanics in time remains an unsolved problem.
Copyright (c) 2025 Wu Xinzhong (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Calculation of the Radius of a Black Hole Just Before Its Supernova Explosion
When a stellar-mass black hole, while collapsing due to its own gravity, reaches a particular radius at which both its gravitational binding energy and quantum chromodynamic binding energy become equal, it explodes as a core-collapse supernova. Its outer shell, which is comparatively less dense than the compact core disintegrates in the explosion releasing gas and stellar dusts (and huge amounts of energy) in the galactic space that forms a nebula. The explosion leaves behind a dense core, a supernova remnant, either in the form of a neutron star or a (smaller) black hole. Since a black hole does not emit light or any electromagnetic radiation, it is impossible to directly measure the size of the black hole before exploding. A mathematical model has been developed for calculating the radius of the black hole just before and presented in this article. It has been mathematically proved that black holes explode when they reach a specific escape velocity (much higher than the velocity of light); and that the value is constant for all the black holes. Also, when a black hole explodes, the value of its mass multiplied by its ‘acceleration due to gravity’ attains a particular value which is also a constant. This constant value is the same for the intermediate-mass and supermassive black holes also. Further, the ratio of the Schwarzschild radius of a black hole and the radius just before its explosion as a supernova is also a constant which is the same for all types of black holes irrespective of their mass.
Copyright (c) 2025 Prosad Bhattacharya (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
The Cosmological Constant (s) vs. the Evolution of Our Black Hole Universe
The necessity of an ad-hoc repulsive cosmological constant in the standard treatment of cosmology is questioned. The time dependent age of the Universe is considered and shown to be accounted for by the black hole model without such a term. Elementary considerations, backed up by explicit calculations, are used to confirm the black hole nature of our Universe. Consideration of the Hubble pa- rameter in terms of cosmological quantities backs up this picture, requiring matter creation. This implies that at present times the Universe can be conceived as a gigantic vacuum fluctuation, evolution from the one at the Planck era. The repul- sive force attributed to the cosmological constant is accounted for by the energy conservation of the model. Thus the dramatic difference between the present mat- ter density and its estimate, essentially corresponding to the Planck one, find here a natural justification. This solves the cosmological constant problem.
Copyright (c) 2025 Paolo Christillin (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Introduction to Universal Law to Provide Reasons for the Birth and Working of the Universe
The universe is governed by one Universal Law that holds true in all circumstances and in all parts of it. This Universal Law is the reason for the presence of gravitational forces, the expansion of the universe, the existence of Black holes, the existence of forces in nature, Etc. The Universal Law can be used as the basis for reasoning for the entire unanswered phenomenon in space. However, this paper is for explaining and deriving this universal law and its implications on the working of the universe. I am not from a scientific background and hence it is very difficult for me to explain the whole idea of this law by substituting it in every natural phenomenon. However, I feel it is more important for me to introduce this law, and its basic implications so that further research is possible.
Copyright (c) 2025 Akshay Vijay Gaikwad (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
The Existence of Time, Energy, 4 Forces, and Physical Laws Depends on Motion
This paper explores the relationship between motion, time, energy, and forces. It proposes a new framework based on the idea that motion drives time, energy, and forces. Without motion, it is impossible to perceive time, energy, or forces. Motion precedes time because time is created through motion. The concept of time without motion is meaningless. Furthermore, not only time but also all forms of energy and forces depend on motion. Energy is generated, changed, or transformed due to motion. The four fundamental forces-gravity, electromagnetism, the strong nuclear force, and the weak nuclear force-are all dependent on motion. Additionally, physical laws are active because of motion. Without motion, these laws would break down. According to this theory, motion provides a new perspective on fundamental scientific principles, potentially offering insights into the Grand Unified Theory (GUT).
Copyright (c) 2025 Debjyoti Deoghuria (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Space Physics of the Universe and the Evolution of π Space Quantum
The mathematical constant π, defined as the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter, has remained an important base of mathematics and science, yet its origins and connections to fundamental universal properties remain elusive. Traditionally viewed through a mathematical lens, this study proposes a novel perspective, linking π to the space-time of the universe. Building on Lord Kelvin's mathematical formulation involving the square root of π, we explore its physical significance as a measure of the interplay between surface and bulk properties of matter in the cosmos. We demonstrate that π governs critical relationships in spatial pressure dynamics, linking "direct space," "inverse space," and "hybridised space" in equilibrium. Furthermore, π is shown to underlie the transition between bulk and surface phenomena, influencing fundamental processes such as harmonic motion. These findings suggest that π is not merely a mathematical abstraction but a universal parameter deeply embedded in the structure and dynamics of space-time. This perspective opens new avenues for understanding π in relation to the physical universe, offering insights into its non-converging nature and its role as a driving force in cosmic processes.
Theoretical Investigation of Gravitational Effect on Effective Mass of Electromagnetic Wave
Copyright (c) 2025 Chandra Bahadur Khadka (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Wide spread misconceptions about the reality of space curvature in General Relativity (GR) and their relevance in connection to the existence of black holes are revisited. The mean life of proposed black holes is estimated and their practical non existence is emphasized. The repulsive effect of gravitational self energy is underlined. The relevance of gravitomagnetism to account for alleged black hole effects is stressed.
Copyright (c) 2024 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Study of Nanomaterials Under Second Order Bulk Modulus
In this study, we analyze the variation of pressure under different values of (VV0) for nanomaterials using secondorder pressure derivative of bulk modulus equation of state. Second order pressure derivative of bulk modulus show fine studies of nanomaterials. The Gupta & Gupta EOS is used to calculate the resultant data of ε-Fe (Hexagonal iron), α-Fe2O3 and Ni-filled MWCNT nanomaterials and compared with other equations of state, like Tait EOS, Mie–Gruneisen EOS, Vinet EOS and experimental data available in literature. The resultant data show good agreement with experimental data and other EOSs.
In geometrical optics, in a system of two thin coaxial lenses, there are several standard formulas, including "1F=1f1+1f2-df1f2". The purpose of this paper is to generalize these formulas to the case of a system of an arbitrary number of thin lenses. In particular, this paper proves that the focal length Fn of a system of n thin coaxial lenses is given by 1Fn= sigma{(-1)mTT[(sigma1frsasrs=as-1+1 0=a0<...<am<am+1=n;dn=1)das]m+1s=1}n-1m=0, where, fr is the focal length of the rth lens, and dr is the distance between the rth lens and (r+1)th lens. For a fixed value of m, all combinations of values of the a’s (satisfying the condition “0 = a0 < a1 < … < am < am+1 = n”) are taken in the inner sum.
Calculation of the TOV Limit Based on Neutron Degeneracy Pressure
Original theory on the mass limit beyond which a cold, non-rotating neutron star cannot be formed, instead only stellar black holes will be created, was stipulated by J.R. Oppenheimer and G.M. Volkoff based on R.C. Tolman’s work in 1939. The limit calculated from the equation established by them is known as the TOV limit which is analogous to the Chandrasekhar limit for White Dwarfs. But the results obtained using the formula was found to be not valid today. Subsequent theoretical works place the limit in the range 1.5 to 3 solar masses. There are several basic theories and related formulae for calculating the TOV limit. In this article a different and novel approach has been adopted to calculate the TOV limit using the theory on neutron degeneracy pressure. As per present calculations, the TOV limit is around 2.928 times the solar mass. These calculations also highlight two aspects which are conceptually new; first, a black hole having mass higher than the TOV limit can also become a neutron star and both can coexist concurrently up to a certain limit; and second, that upper limit of star mass beyond which a black hole will explode in supernova before becoming a neutron star is 7.15 times the solar mass as at that stage the gravitational energy of the black hole will be equal or exceed to its nuclear binding energy.
Copyright (c) 2024 Prosad Bhattacharya (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
This paper provides a holistic picture of the Raman effect that had not been explained in the original research by Raman by showing the entire picture of what happens when a photon from a light source collides with a molecule from a reference object.
Copyright (c) 2024 Sandeep S. Jaiswal (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Entropy in Spacetime: Unravelling the Threads of Human Influence
This study explores the complex interplay between entropy and human behaviour in the context of spacetime. Itseeks to investigate the broad and interwoven impact of human action on the entropy of the universe at the individual andsocietal levels by fusing ideas from thermodynamics, physics, and social sciences. The goal of this multidisciplinary study is to offer a comprehensive and sophisticated knowledge of the intricate interactions that occur between human behaviour and spacetime's changing dynamics.
Copyright (c) 2024 Arvind K C, Swetha Shree J (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Synthesis, Structural and Optical Characterisation of Orthoferrites Rfeo3 (R= Pr,Nd)
Orthorhombic structure of rare earth perovskite type oxide (RFeO3, R =Pr, Nd) nano particles prepared by metathesis method. Powders prepared were characterized by several measurements such as X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscope, EDX, FTIR, and diffuse reflectance spectroscopy to understand their physio-chemical properties. NdFeo3 and PrFeo3, synthesized metathesis method crystallite size of 61nm and 60.5 nm respectively.
Copyright (c) 2024 J Pallavi, Dr. Guduru Prasad, Prof. M Vithal (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Dark Matter is Just Gravity, Only Normal Matter is the truth Dark Matter is Just Gravity
All the major observational evidences available so far for the existence of dark matter can be explained by simple physical equations and derived astronomical data proving that dark matter theory is wrong. Furthermore, the normal matter is the only matter this is causing all the phenomena’s to happen that was previously believed to be due to unexplained dark matter. New general laws of physics for galactical rotation that cannot be explained by Kepler’s law alone is also derived.
Entanglement Correlation from a Non-degenerate Three-Level Laser with a Parametric Amplifier and Coupled to Vacuum Reservoir
The quantum properties of a non-degenerate three-level laser with the parametric amplifier and coupled to a thermal reservoir are thoroughly analyzed with the use of the pertinent master equation and stochastic differential equations associated with the normal ordering. Applying solutions of resulting differential equations, quadrature variance, the mean and variance of photon number, the photon number correlation are calculated. However, the two-mode driving light has no effect on the squeezing properties of the cavity modes. Employing the same solutions, one can also obtain anti normally ordered characteristic function defined in the Heisenberg picture. For a linear gain coefficient of (A = 100), for a cavity damping constant of K= 0:8, μ = 0.16 and for thermal reservoir nth = 0, the maximum intra cavity photon entanglement is found at steady state and at threshold to be 70%.
Solution of Stochastic Differential Equations
Entanglement Amplification and Langavian Equation
Copyright (c) 2024 Negasa Belay, Edobus Mosisa, Chali Edosa (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Entangled Photon Generation From a Three-Level Laser with a Parametric Amplifier and Coupled to a Thermal Reservoir
In this article we study squeezing and statistical properties of light producing by a non-degenerate three-level laser with the parametric amplifier and coupled to a thermal reservoir. With the aid of master equation, we obtain stochastic differential equations. Applying solutions of resulting differential equations, we calculate quadrature variance, the mean and variance of photon number, the photon number correlation. However, the two-mode driving light has no effect on the squeezing properties of the cavity modes. On the other hand, parametric amplifier and thermal reservoir increase the mean and variance of photon number. Furthermore, employing the same solutions, we also obtain anti normally ordered characteristic function defined in the Heisenberg picture. For a linear gain coefficient of (A = 100), for a cavity damping constant of K= 0:8,μ = 0 and for thermal reservoir ¯ nth = 0 ,the maximum intra cavity photon entanglement is found at steady state and at threshold to be 60%.
Copyright (c) 2024 Negasa Belay (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Biot-Savart Law for Determination of Speed of Particle Beyond the Speed of Light
his paper presents the modification of Biot-Savart law that thoroughly put to calculate magnetic field at any point in the space due to motion of charge in a complete circuit and further applies to determine velocity of particle faster than the speed of light. The modified Biot-Savart law provides complete mathematical result as given by ordinary Biot-Savart law, but most importantly, do not involve the need of derivative, integration of line element. This formula is applicable to address the question of how is it possible to achieve velocity of particle in excess of C and to open a discussion towards a new way of acquiring speed of particle beyond speed of light, namely C ≤ V ≤ ∞, Although, there is popular statement “nothing can move faster than speed of light”. In this highly controversial statement, the specific purpose is not to comprises the merits of existing Biot-Savart law, but rather to introduce a concise and careful reasoned account of Biot-Savart law to propagate particle faster than speed of light.
Copyright (c) 2024 Chandra Bahadur Khadka (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Mung Seeds Under Constant Low Potential Difference During Post-Germination When Sprout Length Grows
Low potential difference 0.0Volt 1.5Volt, 3.0Volt, 4.5Volt, and 6.0Volt are applied during the growth of sprout length after germination and post-germination of mung seeds in open-air conditions. The sprout length decreases with an increase in potential difference and graphs show non-linear variations. Thus, this potential difference produces a negative impact on the sprout length elongation of seeds. The decrease in the sprout length may be due to lesser diffusion through the cell wall or due to the weakening of the activity of the other cell components leading to a slower rate of cell division. This may have an impact on the process of preservation of seeds.
Copyright (c) 2024 A. Ghorai (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Heat Transfer Investigation of a Flat Plate Solar Collector
Because of the low value of the convective heat transfer coefficient between the absorber plate and the air, the thermal efficiency of a solar air heater is greatly reduced, resulting in high absorber plate temperatures and large heat losses to the surrounding environment. The analysis of heat transmission in a solar air heater is presented in this research, which makes use of Computational Fluid Dynamics. An investigation is conducted into the effect of the Reynolds number on the Nusselt number and friction factor. It is necessary to study and visually depict the nature of the flow across the duct of a solar air heater, which is done using a commercial finite volume software. The findings of the CFD simulations are found to be in excellent agreement with the experimental results. Because of this, the average Nusselt number increases as the Reynolds number grows, and the average friction factor reduces as the Reynolds number increases as well.
Copyright (c) 2024 Rame Kumar (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Study of PEM Fuel Cell for Different Cell Temperature
Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are considered an eco-friendly, highly efficient, and pollution-free alternative energy source. Due to their outstanding properties, these are used in stationary and transport applications like wild areas, military, space missions, the auto sector, and a few others. Therefore outstanding properties refer to the PEM fuel cells as a future alternative energy source. In this work, the serpentine membrane has been analyzed under different temperatures, and compared with experimental data and previous works. The results show that cell temperature is affected by cell voltage and power density. The cell voltage and power density are decreased with increased temperature and are much clear from the polarization curve. The overall investigations have suggested that the study of the thermal effect on PEM fuel cells provided good results, and the study made it more promising and could enhance its performance.
Copyright (c) 2024 Rohit Gupta, Mohit Gupta, Dr. Brijendra Kumar Sharma (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Relative Nature of Electric Permittivity and Magnetic Permeability of Electromagnetic Wave
his research is about the special theory of relativity on electric permittivity and magnetic permeability of electromagnetic wave. For this, Four Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations play an important role. James Clerk Maxwell suggested that the light travel as electromagnetic wave which require no material medium for propagation. The speed of light (C) in free space is always constant and is independent of the speed of source or observer or the relative motion of the inertial system and has velocity ‘C’ given by. So velocity of electromagnetic waves depend on obsolute magnetic permeability (μ0) and obsolute electric permittivity (ε0) of free space. These two physical quantities rely on relative motion of inertial system. So μ0 and ε0 are not obsolute quantity but are dependent upon the relative motion between the observer and the phenomenon observed. Electric and magnetic field of a charge rely upon the value of obsolute electric permittivity of medium. Concisely, μ0 and ε0 are variant quantity. Consequently electric and magnetic field get relative for electromagnetic wave. That is electric and magnetic field depend on relative motion of inertial system for electromagnetic waves.
Redefinition of De-Broglie Wavelength Associated with Material Particle
The objective of the work is to reveal the Association of special theory of relativity with De-Broglie wavelength of a particle. It shows that wave nature of a particle is always associated with it’s relativistic properties. The phenomena of interference, diffraction and polarization of light can only be explained on the basis of wave theory of light. These phenomena show that light possesses wave nature. However, certain phenomena like photoelectric effect, Compton effect and discrete emission and absorption of radiation can only be explained on the basis of quantum theory. According to this theory , light propagates in a small packets or quanta and behave like corpuscles or particle. This shows that light possesses particle nature. thus, we can say that light possesses dual nature. The matter also possesses the same dual nature. In order to have wave nature, the particle must satisfy the equation Where m denotes the mass of particle when it is moving with certain velocity. h=6.62×10-34 is the plank’s constant. C is the velocity of light in free space. This shows that wavelength of a material Particle depends on mass. When mathematical operation is done on above equation, it give complete quantitative properties about the wave nature of a particle.
Mass Accretion During the Motion of Raindrops
Exploration of dynamics of raindrops is one of the simple yet most complicated mechanical problems. Mass accretion from moist air during the motion of raindrop through resistive medium holds an arbitrary power law equation. Its integral part is the change of shape, terminal motions and terminal solutions, etc. Classical Newtonian formalism is used to formulate a mathematical model of generalized first order differential equation. We have discussed about the terminal velocity of raindrop and its variation with the extensive use of python program and library.
Copyright (c) 2024 Sneha Dey, Ghorai (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0