Indian Journal of Advanced Physics (IJAP)
The Indian Journal of Advanced Physics (IJAP) has ISSN 2582-8983 (online), an open-access, peer-reviewed, periodical half-yearly international journal, which is published by Lattice Science Publication (LSP) in April and October. Authors can electronically submit articles throughout the year using the Article Submission System. Authors can format their article either in (i) a single-column format or (ii) as per the journal template. The submitted articles should not have been previously published or are currently under consideration for publication elsewhere. The journal does not accept brief or short notes for publication. The editors retain the right to reject any articles that lack quality or originality without sending them for review. All articles must fall within the journal’s scope and will undergo a double-anonymized peer-review process. Authors must confirm that they have read and understood the content of their submitted article and ensure that it meets acceptable English grammar and usage standards. To help with the proofreading process, authors can use tools like Grammarly or similar applications. As an open-access journal, authors must pay an Article Processing Charge (APC) to publish their articles and retain copyright. Additionally, authors should familiarise themselves with the editorial and publishing policies of the journal.
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Unification of the Fundamental Equations in Physics: A Single Functional Relation Between Mass and Volume
Since the inception of classical physics, scientists worldwide have continually introduced new equations. Notably, the three fundamental physical variables—mass, time, and temperature—have consistently played central roles in these formulations. However, these variables are often treated as ‘abstract’ quantities, particularly because their physical dimensions, about length (L), have seldom been explicitly addressed. In this research, a novel thermodynamic approach has been employed to investigate the dimensional relationships between time (t), mass (M), and temperature (T) and length (L). The new dimensions revealed for these variables have the potential to reshape both modern and classical physics. The equation mass = density × volume holds profound significance in physics. Density, in this context, serves as an indirect measure of a material’s cohesiveness, or orderliness; among materials of varying density, the one with the greater density will house more molecules within a fixed volume, and is thus more cohesive. Density is, therefore, an index of order. Conversely, increasing the volume of a given mass—such as by introducing air voids or foams—decreases density, thereby diminishing cohesiveness and increasing disorder or randomness. Density, then, is the “creator” of order, while volume gives rise to disorder or randomness. Thus, mass, being the product of density and volume, is inherently a composite variable that embodies both order and disorder. This article demonstrates that the contribution of density (order) outweighs that of volume (randomness), making mass, as a hybrid parameter, primarily indicative of order. Every physical, mechanical, or chemical process is fundamentally an interplay of order and disorder, manifested in the equation mass = density × volume. Core principles of physics—including the laws of motion, mass-energy equivalence, ideal gas behaviour, wave-particle duality, the uncertainty principle, and the quantum mechanics of microscopic particles—can all be understood as manifestations of these order–disorder phenomena. Consequently, all fundamental equations in physics may ultimately converge upon, or be unified with, the relation mass = density × volume. Such unification or convergence can only be fully understood once the three principal variables—mass, time, and temperature—lose their abstraction and are properly embodied. In this research, we offer a foundational embodiment for these variables, opening new horizons for modern physics.
Thermodynamic Compactness & Hard-Core Volume (HCV)
Copyright (c) 2025 Nishant Sahdev, Chinmoy Bhattacharya (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
The understanding of time in physics has undergone profound changes from classical mechanics to relativity and quantum mechanics. In Newtonian mechanics, time is regarded as an absolute and uniform passage, independent of external phenomena, and is a fundamental parameter of the equations of motion. Relativity emphasises the relativity of time and its close connection with the motion of matter, proposes an operational definition of the simultaneity of distant events, and develops Minkowski’s view of spacetime and Riemannian curved spacetime. In quantum mechanics, time is often regarded as a parameter external to the microscopic system rather than an observable quantity. Although some scholars have attempted to introduce time operators, they have not yet gained widespread recognition. Overall, the understanding of time in physics continues to deepen with the development of theory. Still, the unity of classical and quantum mechanics in time remains an unsolved problem.
Copyright (c) 2025 Wu Xinzhong (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Calculation of the Radius of a Black Hole Just Before Its Supernova Explosion
When a stellar-mass black hole, while collapsing due to its own gravity, reaches a particular radius at which both its gravitational binding energy and quantum chromodynamic binding energy become equal, it explodes as a core-collapse supernova. Its outer shell, which is comparatively less dense than the compact core disintegrates in the explosion releasing gas and stellar dusts (and huge amounts of energy) in the galactic space that forms a nebula. The explosion leaves behind a dense core, a supernova remnant, either in the form of a neutron star or a (smaller) black hole. Since a black hole does not emit light or any electromagnetic radiation, it is impossible to directly measure the size of the black hole before exploding. A mathematical model has been developed for calculating the radius of the black hole just before and presented in this article. It has been mathematically proved that black holes explode when they reach a specific escape velocity (much higher than the velocity of light); and that the value is constant for all the black holes. Also, when a black hole explodes, the value of its mass multiplied by its ‘acceleration due to gravity’ attains a particular value which is also a constant. This constant value is the same for the intermediate-mass and supermassive black holes also. Further, the ratio of the Schwarzschild radius of a black hole and the radius just before its explosion as a supernova is also a constant which is the same for all types of black holes irrespective of their mass.
Copyright (c) 2025 Prosad Bhattacharya (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
The Cosmological Constant (s) vs. the Evolution of Our Black Hole Universe
The necessity of an ad-hoc repulsive cosmological constant in the standard treatment of cosmology is questioned. The time dependent age of the Universe is considered and shown to be accounted for by the black hole model without such a term. Elementary considerations, backed up by explicit calculations, are used to confirm the black hole nature of our Universe. Consideration of the Hubble pa- rameter in terms of cosmological quantities backs up this picture, requiring matter creation. This implies that at present times the Universe can be conceived as a gigantic vacuum fluctuation, evolution from the one at the Planck era. The repul- sive force attributed to the cosmological constant is accounted for by the energy conservation of the model. Thus the dramatic difference between the present mat- ter density and its estimate, essentially corresponding to the Planck one, find here a natural justification. This solves the cosmological constant problem.
Copyright (c) 2025 Paolo Christillin (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Introduction to Universal Law to Provide Reasons for the Birth and Working of the Universe
The universe is governed by one Universal Law that holds true in all circumstances and in all parts of it. This Universal Law is the reason for the presence of gravitational forces, the expansion of the universe, the existence of Black holes, the existence of forces in nature, Etc. The Universal Law can be used as the basis for reasoning for the entire unanswered phenomenon in space. However, this paper is for explaining and deriving this universal law and its implications on the working of the universe. I am not from a scientific background and hence it is very difficult for me to explain the whole idea of this law by substituting it in every natural phenomenon. However, I feel it is more important for me to introduce this law, and its basic implications so that further research is possible.
Copyright (c) 2025 Akshay Vijay Gaikwad (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
The Existence of Time, Energy, 4 Forces, and Physical Laws Depends on Motion
This paper explores the relationship between motion, time, energy, and forces. It proposes a new framework based on the idea that motion drives time, energy, and forces. Without motion, it is impossible to perceive time, energy, or forces. Motion precedes time because time is created through motion. The concept of time without motion is meaningless. Furthermore, not only time but also all forms of energy and forces depend on motion. Energy is generated, changed, or transformed due to motion. The four fundamental forces-gravity, electromagnetism, the strong nuclear force, and the weak nuclear force-are all dependent on motion. Additionally, physical laws are active because of motion. Without motion, these laws would break down. According to this theory, motion provides a new perspective on fundamental scientific principles, potentially offering insights into the Grand Unified Theory (GUT).
Copyright (c) 2025 Debjyoti Deoghuria (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Space Physics of the Universe and the Evolution of π Space Quantum
The mathematical constant π, defined as the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter, has remained an important base of mathematics and science, yet its origins and connections to fundamental universal properties remain elusive. Traditionally viewed through a mathematical lens, this study proposes a novel perspective, linking π to the space-time of the universe. Building on Lord Kelvin's mathematical formulation involving the square root of π, we explore its physical significance as a measure of the interplay between surface and bulk properties of matter in the cosmos. We demonstrate that π governs critical relationships in spatial pressure dynamics, linking "direct space," "inverse space," and "hybridised space" in equilibrium. Furthermore, π is shown to underlie the transition between bulk and surface phenomena, influencing fundamental processes such as harmonic motion. These findings suggest that π is not merely a mathematical abstraction but a universal parameter deeply embedded in the structure and dynamics of space-time. This perspective opens new avenues for understanding π in relation to the physical universe, offering insights into its non-converging nature and its role as a driving force in cosmic processes.
Theoretical Investigation of Gravitational Effect on Effective Mass of Electromagnetic Wave
Copyright (c) 2025 Chandra Bahadur Khadka (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Wide spread misconceptions about the reality of space curvature in General Relativity (GR) and their relevance in connection to the existence of black holes are revisited. The mean life of proposed black holes is estimated and their practical non existence is emphasized. The repulsive effect of gravitational self energy is underlined. The relevance of gravitomagnetism to account for alleged black hole effects is stressed.
Copyright (c) 2024 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Study of Nanomaterials Under Second Order Bulk Modulus
In this study, we analyze the variation of pressure under different values of (VV0) for nanomaterials using secondorder pressure derivative of bulk modulus equation of state. Second order pressure derivative of bulk modulus show fine studies of nanomaterials. The Gupta & Gupta EOS is used to calculate the resultant data of ε-Fe (Hexagonal iron), α-Fe2O3 and Ni-filled MWCNT nanomaterials and compared with other equations of state, like Tait EOS, Mie–Gruneisen EOS, Vinet EOS and experimental data available in literature. The resultant data show good agreement with experimental data and other EOSs.
In geometrical optics, in a system of two thin coaxial lenses, there are several standard formulas, including "1F=1f1+1f2-df1f2". The purpose of this paper is to generalize these formulas to the case of a system of an arbitrary number of thin lenses. In particular, this paper proves that the focal length Fn of a system of n thin coaxial lenses is given by 1Fn= sigma{(-1)mTT[(sigma1frsasrs=as-1+1 0=a0<...<am<am+1=n;dn=1)das]m+1s=1}n-1m=0, where, fr is the focal length of the rth lens, and dr is the distance between the rth lens and (r+1)th lens. For a fixed value of m, all combinations of values of the a’s (satisfying the condition “0 = a0 < a1 < … < am < am+1 = n”) are taken in the inner sum.
Calculation of the TOV Limit Based on Neutron Degeneracy Pressure
Original theory on the mass limit beyond which a cold, non-rotating neutron star cannot be formed, instead only stellar black holes will be created, was stipulated by J.R. Oppenheimer and G.M. Volkoff based on R.C. Tolman’s work in 1939. The limit calculated from the equation established by them is known as the TOV limit which is analogous to the Chandrasekhar limit for White Dwarfs. But the results obtained using the formula was found to be not valid today. Subsequent theoretical works place the limit in the range 1.5 to 3 solar masses. There are several basic theories and related formulae for calculating the TOV limit. In this article a different and novel approach has been adopted to calculate the TOV limit using the theory on neutron degeneracy pressure. As per present calculations, the TOV limit is around 2.928 times the solar mass. These calculations also highlight two aspects which are conceptually new; first, a black hole having mass higher than the TOV limit can also become a neutron star and both can coexist concurrently up to a certain limit; and second, that upper limit of star mass beyond which a black hole will explode in supernova before becoming a neutron star is 7.15 times the solar mass as at that stage the gravitational energy of the black hole will be equal or exceed to its nuclear binding energy.
Copyright (c) 2024 Prosad Bhattacharya (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
This paper provides a holistic picture of the Raman effect that had not been explained in the original research by Raman by showing the entire picture of what happens when a photon from a light source collides with a molecule from a reference object.
Copyright (c) 2024 Sandeep S. Jaiswal (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Entropy in Spacetime: Unravelling the Threads of Human Influence
This study explores the complex interplay between entropy and human behaviour in the context of spacetime. Itseeks to investigate the broad and interwoven impact of human action on the entropy of the universe at the individual andsocietal levels by fusing ideas from thermodynamics, physics, and social sciences. The goal of this multidisciplinary study is to offer a comprehensive and sophisticated knowledge of the intricate interactions that occur between human behaviour and spacetime's changing dynamics.
Copyright (c) 2024 Arvind K C, Swetha Shree J (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Synthesis, Structural and Optical Characterisation of Orthoferrites Rfeo3 (R= Pr,Nd)
Orthorhombic structure of rare earth perovskite type oxide (RFeO3, R =Pr, Nd) nano particles prepared by metathesis method. Powders prepared were characterized by several measurements such as X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscope, EDX, FTIR, and diffuse reflectance spectroscopy to understand their physio-chemical properties. NdFeo3 and PrFeo3, synthesized metathesis method crystallite size of 61nm and 60.5 nm respectively.
Copyright (c) 2024 J Pallavi, Dr. Guduru Prasad, Prof. M Vithal (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Dark Matter is Just Gravity, Only Normal Matter is the truth Dark Matter is Just Gravity
All the major observational evidences available so far for the existence of dark matter can be explained by simple physical equations and derived astronomical data proving that dark matter theory is wrong. Furthermore, the normal matter is the only matter this is causing all the phenomena’s to happen that was previously believed to be due to unexplained dark matter. New general laws of physics for galactical rotation that cannot be explained by Kepler’s law alone is also derived.
Entanglement Correlation from a Non-degenerate Three-Level Laser with a Parametric Amplifier and Coupled to Vacuum Reservoir
The quantum properties of a non-degenerate three-level laser with the parametric amplifier and coupled to a thermal reservoir are thoroughly analyzed with the use of the pertinent master equation and stochastic differential equations associated with the normal ordering. Applying solutions of resulting differential equations, quadrature variance, the mean and variance of photon number, the photon number correlation are calculated. However, the two-mode driving light has no effect on the squeezing properties of the cavity modes. Employing the same solutions, one can also obtain anti normally ordered characteristic function defined in the Heisenberg picture. For a linear gain coefficient of (A = 100), for a cavity damping constant of K= 0:8, μ = 0.16 and for thermal reservoir nth = 0, the maximum intra cavity photon entanglement is found at steady state and at threshold to be 70%.
Solution of Stochastic Differential Equations
Entanglement Amplification and Langavian Equation
Copyright (c) 2024 Negasa Belay, Edobus Mosisa, Chali Edosa (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Entangled Photon Generation From a Three-Level Laser with a Parametric Amplifier and Coupled to a Thermal Reservoir
In this article we study squeezing and statistical properties of light producing by a non-degenerate three-level laser with the parametric amplifier and coupled to a thermal reservoir. With the aid of master equation, we obtain stochastic differential equations. Applying solutions of resulting differential equations, we calculate quadrature variance, the mean and variance of photon number, the photon number correlation. However, the two-mode driving light has no effect on the squeezing properties of the cavity modes. On the other hand, parametric amplifier and thermal reservoir increase the mean and variance of photon number. Furthermore, employing the same solutions, we also obtain anti normally ordered characteristic function defined in the Heisenberg picture. For a linear gain coefficient of (A = 100), for a cavity damping constant of K= 0:8,μ = 0 and for thermal reservoir ¯ nth = 0 ,the maximum intra cavity photon entanglement is found at steady state and at threshold to be 60%.
Copyright (c) 2024 Negasa Belay (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Biot-Savart Law for Determination of Speed of Particle Beyond the Speed of Light
his paper presents the modification of Biot-Savart law that thoroughly put to calculate magnetic field at any point in the space due to motion of charge in a complete circuit and further applies to determine velocity of particle faster than the speed of light. The modified Biot-Savart law provides complete mathematical result as given by ordinary Biot-Savart law, but most importantly, do not involve the need of derivative, integration of line element. This formula is applicable to address the question of how is it possible to achieve velocity of particle in excess of C and to open a discussion towards a new way of acquiring speed of particle beyond speed of light, namely C ≤ V ≤ ∞, Although, there is popular statement “nothing can move faster than speed of light”. In this highly controversial statement, the specific purpose is not to comprises the merits of existing Biot-Savart law, but rather to introduce a concise and careful reasoned account of Biot-Savart law to propagate particle faster than speed of light.
Copyright (c) 2024 Chandra Bahadur Khadka (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Mung Seeds Under Constant Low Potential Difference During Post-Germination When Sprout Length Grows
Low potential difference 0.0Volt 1.5Volt, 3.0Volt, 4.5Volt, and 6.0Volt are applied during the growth of sprout length after germination and post-germination of mung seeds in open-air conditions. The sprout length decreases with an increase in potential difference and graphs show non-linear variations. Thus, this potential difference produces a negative impact on the sprout length elongation of seeds. The decrease in the sprout length may be due to lesser diffusion through the cell wall or due to the weakening of the activity of the other cell components leading to a slower rate of cell division. This may have an impact on the process of preservation of seeds.
Copyright (c) 2024 A. Ghorai (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Heat Transfer Investigation of a Flat Plate Solar Collector
Because of the low value of the convective heat transfer coefficient between the absorber plate and the air, the thermal efficiency of a solar air heater is greatly reduced, resulting in high absorber plate temperatures and large heat losses to the surrounding environment. The analysis of heat transmission in a solar air heater is presented in this research, which makes use of Computational Fluid Dynamics. An investigation is conducted into the effect of the Reynolds number on the Nusselt number and friction factor. It is necessary to study and visually depict the nature of the flow across the duct of a solar air heater, which is done using a commercial finite volume software. The findings of the CFD simulations are found to be in excellent agreement with the experimental results. Because of this, the average Nusselt number increases as the Reynolds number grows, and the average friction factor reduces as the Reynolds number increases as well.
Copyright (c) 2024 Rame Kumar (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Study of PEM Fuel Cell for Different Cell Temperature
Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are considered an eco-friendly, highly efficient, and pollution-free alternative energy source. Due to their outstanding properties, these are used in stationary and transport applications like wild areas, military, space missions, the auto sector, and a few others. Therefore outstanding properties refer to the PEM fuel cells as a future alternative energy source. In this work, the serpentine membrane has been analyzed under different temperatures, and compared with experimental data and previous works. The results show that cell temperature is affected by cell voltage and power density. The cell voltage and power density are decreased with increased temperature and are much clear from the polarization curve. The overall investigations have suggested that the study of the thermal effect on PEM fuel cells provided good results, and the study made it more promising and could enhance its performance.
Copyright (c) 2024 Rohit Gupta, Mohit Gupta, Dr. Brijendra Kumar Sharma (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Relative Nature of Electric Permittivity and Magnetic Permeability of Electromagnetic Wave
his research is about the special theory of relativity on electric permittivity and magnetic permeability of electromagnetic wave. For this, Four Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations play an important role. James Clerk Maxwell suggested that the light travel as electromagnetic wave which require no material medium for propagation. The speed of light (C) in free space is always constant and is independent of the speed of source or observer or the relative motion of the inertial system and has velocity ‘C’ given by. So velocity of electromagnetic waves depend on obsolute magnetic permeability (μ0) and obsolute electric permittivity (ε0) of free space. These two physical quantities rely on relative motion of inertial system. So μ0 and ε0 are not obsolute quantity but are dependent upon the relative motion between the observer and the phenomenon observed. Electric and magnetic field of a charge rely upon the value of obsolute electric permittivity of medium. Concisely, μ0 and ε0 are variant quantity. Consequently electric and magnetic field get relative for electromagnetic wave. That is electric and magnetic field depend on relative motion of inertial system for electromagnetic waves.
Redefinition of De-Broglie Wavelength Associated with Material Particle
The objective of the work is to reveal the Association of special theory of relativity with De-Broglie wavelength of a particle. It shows that wave nature of a particle is always associated with it’s relativistic properties. The phenomena of interference, diffraction and polarization of light can only be explained on the basis of wave theory of light. These phenomena show that light possesses wave nature. However, certain phenomena like photoelectric effect, Compton effect and discrete emission and absorption of radiation can only be explained on the basis of quantum theory. According to this theory , light propagates in a small packets or quanta and behave like corpuscles or particle. This shows that light possesses particle nature. thus, we can say that light possesses dual nature. The matter also possesses the same dual nature. In order to have wave nature, the particle must satisfy the equation Where m denotes the mass of particle when it is moving with certain velocity. h=6.62×10-34 is the plank’s constant. C is the velocity of light in free space. This shows that wavelength of a material Particle depends on mass. When mathematical operation is done on above equation, it give complete quantitative properties about the wave nature of a particle.
Mass Accretion During the Motion of Raindrops
Exploration of dynamics of raindrops is one of the simple yet most complicated mechanical problems. Mass accretion from moist air during the motion of raindrop through resistive medium holds an arbitrary power law equation. Its integral part is the change of shape, terminal motions and terminal solutions, etc. Classical Newtonian formalism is used to formulate a mathematical model of generalized first order differential equation. We have discussed about the terminal velocity of raindrop and its variation with the extensive use of python program and library.
Copyright (c) 2024 Sneha Dey, Ghorai (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
A Comprehensive Study of Mass Accretion and Atmospheric Effect of Raindrop
The mass accretion of a raindrop in different layers of the atmosphere is not dealt with so far. A comprehensive brief study of the motion of raindrops through the atmosphere (i) without mass accretion, (ii) with mass accretion and (iii) finally pressure variation in the atmosphere with altitude using Bernoulli’s equation is illustrated. Acquirement of mass from moist air is mass accretion and mass accretion during the motion of raindrop through resistive medium holds an arbitrary power-law equation. Bernoulli’s equation when applied to it, the generalized first-order differential equation is reduced to a polynomial equation. Results show a single intersecting point of approximate terminal velocity 1 m/s and mass 10-06 mg as illustrated. Terminal velocity is achieved within 25 sec. There is the approximate exponential growth of terminal velocity. An increase in momentum is due to mass accretion during motion. Various conditions of no mass accretion and mass accretion show the same result while for atmospheric effect using Bernoulli’s equation the first-order differential equation reduces to a polynomial equation.
Copyright (c) 2024 Sneha Dey, Dr. A. Ghorai (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Inactivation of Airborne Viruses using Newly Designed Emitron
The objective of the current research is to validate the microbiological quality of Emitron against MS2 phage, Corona virus, bacteria, yeast, and molds. Unimech healthcare designed PMEE based Emitron which is mostly used to reduce the microbial count and virus count in an area. To perform microbiological testing of the Emitron, environmental monitoring was performed for MS2 phage, Corona virus, bacteria, yeast, and molds before and after treatment by settle plate method. Petri plates of sterilized Phage agar, SCDA and PDA media were prepared and exposed for environment monitoring before and after treatment by settle plate method. The phage agar and SCDA plates were incubated at 37°C for 72 hours and PDA plates incubated at 25°C for 5 days. Total of 99% reduction was reported in microbiology lab with respect to the microorganisms after installing Emitron. We can conclude that the Unimech healthcare’s Emitron is virus attenuation device so one can use it to purify the air and kill the viruses, bacteria, fungi, and other microbes.
Copyright (c) 2024 Ramakrishna K, Chaya K, Rohit S Mane (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
A Brief Insight on Simulation and Space-Time
Throughout most of human history, events and phenomena of interest have been characterized using space and time as their major characteristic dimensions, in either absolute or relative conceptualizations. Space–Time analysis seeks to understand when and where (and sometimes why) things occur. Ever since Einstein introduced this topic in his “General Theory of Relativity” (a remarkable feat) in 1915, many explanations, assumptions about Space-Time have been published. The authentic archives of Space-Time have helped us to predict and express the ongoing spatial phenomena of the Universe. The strangeness of Space-Time forces Young Researchers and Physicists to study upon the current predictions and theories, sink into the ocean of Space-Time mystery and come up with their own predictions. Besides Space-Time, the predictions about us being in a Simulation is a recent concept. Nick Bostrom’s trilemma “the Simulation argument”, published in 2003 led to the commencement of further oddly satisfying, real life evidence enriched, research papers. “Two possibilities exist: either we are alone in the Universe or we are not. Both are equally terrifying.”- by Andrew C Clarke. Throughout the paper, the Loaf Space-Time model and brief insights on other hypotheses about the structure of the mysterious space-time will be presented with insightful examples, authentic research outcomes, which will be linked with the Simulation Hypothesis.
Copyright (c) 2024 Reyan Kumar Sapkota (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Variation of Energy Density and Mass Density of Photon with Wavelength
The mass density and energy density of visible photon is calculated as 10-8 Kgm-3 and 109jm3 respectively. Moreover it is also observed that mass density and energy density of photon depend upon photons mass, wavelength, volume and energy. This is clear from figure 1, figure 2 and literatures. Therefore the mass density and energy density of photon varies with masses of photon, wavelength, volume, etc.
Copyright (c) 2024 Saddam Husain Dhobi, Kishori Yadav, Bhishma Karki (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
D-Medium Control the Temperature of Electron Inside and Outside the Atom
The objective of this work is to show the presence of D medium and the presence of this medium to control the temperature of an electron inside or outside the atom. For this, some mathematical model developed in [1], work for temperature with velocity was developed and presence of D-Medium inside atom described [2]. On interconnecting temperature and D-Medium, the concept of D-medium generated and shows that D-medium surrounded the electron in all cases (free, inside an atom, or other), this medium controls the temperature of the electron. Hence temperature of an electron depends upon the D-medium either inside an atom or outside the atom. The penetration of a specific photon through this medium also increases the temperature of the electron because the electron is composed of sub-electronic particles [3].
Copyright (c) 2024 Saddam Husain Dhobi, Roshan Subedi, Keshab Ghimire, Deepak Kharel, Sudeep Ghimire (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0