The Threat and Ecological Benefits of Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahdo Church Forests in Ethiopia: A Review Paper
Article Sidebar
Main Article Content
Abstract
Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahdo Church Forests have multidimensional functions and uses to mankind and other living organisms. This review paper summarises the benefits and threats of Ethiopian church forests within the boundaries of Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Churches. It focuses on biodiversity conservation, emphasising the importance of seeds and seedlings of native vegetation, ecological value, ecosystem services, and benefits to the community and the world in general. The contribution of forests to biodiversity conservation and climate change mitigation is significantly high. However, evidence showed a decrease in forest coverage to produce crops for household consumption. As a result of these factors, the species diversity of natural forests is decreasing. In such difficult conditions, the church forest has been used as a habitat for different plant species. As reported by various scholars, numerous indigenous and IUCN Red List species existed around the church area. In terms of species diversity, the forest around the church is comparable to that of natural forests. In addition to the conservation role of the church forest, the conserved plant species significantly contribute to climate change mitigation through carbon stocks in biomass and soil. Trees in the church area have a long-life history and higher stand structure parameters, such as maximum height, DBH, and crown diameter, and their carbon storage potential is also maximum. Overall, church compounds are serving as hot spot sites for biodiversity conservation and play a significant role in mitigating climate change by limiting greenhouse gas emissions and increasing the amount of carbon removed and stored in forests. It also emphasizes the main threat of these church forests in Ethiopia are deforestation, overgrazing, anthropogenic encroachment, invasive alien species, human population growth and conflict and war. Conservative management of church forests involves protecting them from livestock, managing human use, and actively restoring degraded areas to ensure their longterm health and biodiversity.
Downloads
Article Details
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
How to Cite
References
Aerts, R., Van Overtveld, K., November, E., Wassie, A., Abiyu, A., Demissew, S., Daye, D.D., Giday, K., Haile, M., Tewolde Berhan, S. and Teketay, D. (2016). Conservation of the Ethiopian church forests: threats, opportunities and implications for their management. Science of the Total Environment, 551, pp.404-414. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.02.034
Agrawal A. (2001). Common Property Institution and Sustainable Governance of Resources. World Development, 29 (10): 1649-1672.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(01)00063-8, works remain significant, see declaration
Bhagwat S, Palmer M. (2009). Conservation: The world's religions can help. Nature 461 (7260): 37-37. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/461037b, works remain significant, see declaration
Bhagwat S, Rutte C. (2006). Sacred groves: potential for biodiversity management. Front Ecological 4: 519-524. https://oro.open.ac.uk/37025/1/Bhagwat-Rutte_2006_FEE.pdf, works remain significant, see declaration
Bhagwat SA. (2009). Ecosystem Services and Sacred Natural Sites: Reconciling Material and Non-material Values in Nature Conservation. Environ Values 18 (4): 417-427. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3197/096327109x12532653285731, works remain significant, see declaration
Bingelli P, Desalegn D, Healey J, Painton M, Smith J, Zewge T. (2003). Conservation of Ethiopian Sacred Groves. Eur Trop for Res Netw. Newslett 38: 37-38. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.02.034, works remain significant, see declaration
Bitew, A. (2019). Distribution and ecological impact of exotic woody plant species inside sacred groves of Northwestern Ethiopia. Biodiversity and Conservation, 28 (11), pp.2845- 2859. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-019-01799-4
CFI (Carbon farming Inactivity) (2012). Carbon Farming Initiative Handbook in the context of the Guide to the Carbon Farming Initiative. Published by The NSW Aboriginal Land Council. https://www.oilmallee.org.au/uploads/1/2/4/8/124851687/cfi-handbook-20120403-pdf.pdf, works remain significant, see declaration
Cardelús C., Scull P., Hair J., Baimas-George M., and Lowman M.D., Eshete A.W. (2013): A Preliminary assessment of Ethiopian sacred grove status at the landscape and ecosystem scales. Diversity, 5: 320–334. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/d5020320, works remain significant, see declaration
Cardelus CL, Lowman MD, Eshete AW. (2012). Uniting Church and Science for Conservation. Science 335 (6071): 915-917.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.335.6071.915, works remain significant, see declaration
CSA (Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia). 2013. Agricultural Sample Survey; Report on Land Utilization, Private Peasant Holdings, Meher Season. Statistical Bulletin, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 4: 1-10. https://drs.ess.gov.et/items/b1400dc3-ee02-4a3b-8c86-e53539939f53, works remain significant, see declaration
Dudley N, Nigel B, Vallauri D. (2012). Deadwood Living Forests: The importance of veteran trees and deadwood to biodiversity, WWF European Office, Brussels. https://d2ouvy59p0dg6k.cloudfront.net/downloads/deadwoodwithnotes.pdf, works remain significant, see declaration
FAO (2012). The state of forest genetic resources of Ethiopia. Institute of Biodiversity Conservation, Addis Ababa, FAO: 69 https://www.fao.org/4/i3825e/i3825e23.pdf, works remain significant, see declaration
FAO, (2010). Global Forest Resources Assessment, main report. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Rome. https://www.fao.org/4/i1757e/i1757e.pdf, works remain significant, see declaration
Getachew D, Alemu A, Eshfite T, Billa D, Teshome A. (2019). The Potential of the Tara-Gedam and Kulkual-Ber Forests of Gonder. EIAR, ISBN: 978-99944-53-52-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.13057/asianjfor/r030201
IPCC (2018). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change (Geneva, Switzerland. https://noc.ac.uk/news/noc-contributes-latest-ipcc-report-assessing-impacts-climate-change?gad_source=1&gad_campaignid=19651672028&gbraid=0AAAAApOYD3xPnbKS42g_LGvMIY0NkV9NA&gclid=EAIaIQobChMIjsT3ueaikAMV16RmAh1BYyDwEAAYASAAEgKkYPD_BwE
Liang J, Reynolds T, Wassie A, Collins C, Wubalem A. (2016). Effects of exotic Eucalyptus spp. Plantations on soil properties in and around sacred natural sites in the northern Ethiopian Highlands. AIMS Agric Food 1 (2): 175-193. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3934/agrfo od.2016.2.175
Lori R. (2015). How churches are the gatekeepers of Ethiopia’s forests; Africa Geographic Magazine. http://www.tadias.com/04/24/2015/how-churches-are-the-gatekeepers-of-ethiopias-forests-pictures/
Mulat Y. (2013): The role of Ethiopian Orthodox churches and monasteries in forest management practices in Chilga and Mettema woredas (districts), North Gondar zone. International Journal of Innovative Research and Development, 2: 437–446.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.17221/154/2019-JFS, works remain significant, see declaration
Nowak, D.J. and Crane, D.E., (2002). Carbon storage and sequestration by urban trees in the USA. Environmental pollution, 116(3), pp.381-389. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0269-7491(01)00214-7, works remain significant, see declaration
Reynolds, T.W., Stave, K.A., Sisay, T.S., Wassie, A.E. (2017a). Changes in community perspectives on the roles and rules of church forests in northern Ethiopia: evidence from a panel survey of four Ethiopian Orthodox communities. Int. J. Commons 11 (1), 355–387.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.18352/ijc.707
Solomon G. (2015). Community perception on rangeland degradation: a case study in two differently settled areas of northern Ethiopia. J. Agricult. Res. Dev. 5 (1). https://www.e3journals.org/cms/articles/1421040630_Solomon.pdf
Tekola A., (2019). Comparative Assessment of Biomass and Soil Organic Carbon Potential of Monastery Forest Reserve and Adjacent Natural Forest: A Case Study In Goba District, Southeastern Ethiopia. http://mrv.hu.edu.et/images/thesis/ASCHALEW.pdf
Terefe D. (2003). Factors Affecting People’s Participation in Participatory Forest Management: The case of IFMP Adaba-Dodola in Bale zone of Oromia Region; MA Thesis, Addis Ababa University School of Graduate Studies. https://projectng.com/topic/in14984/factors-affecting-peoples-participation-participatory, works remain significant, see declaration
Teshome A, Abule E, Lisanework N. (2009). Pastoralists’ perceptions and rangeland evaluation for livestock production in South Eastern Ethiopia. Livest. Res. Rural Dev. 21 (7). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281772786, works remain significant, see declaration
Teku, D., Abebe, A., & Fetene, M. (2024). Ethiopian orthodox tewahedo church sacred forests as Sanctuaries for Endangered Species: Key Roles, Challenges and Prospects, Sustainable Environment, 10:1, 2391614, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/27658511.2024.2391614, works remain significant, see declaration
Teketay D, Lemenih M, Bekele T, Yemshaw Y, Hunde T. (2010). Forest resources and challenges of sustainable forest management and conservation in Ethiopia. In: Bongers F, Tennigkeit T (eds) Degraded forests in Eastern Africa: Management and restoration. Earth scans Ltd., London, UK. (1)19−63 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312367739, works remain significant, see declaration
Tilahun, A., Terefe, H. and Soromessa, T. (2015). The contribution of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church in forest management and its best practices should be scaled up in the North Shewa Zone of the Amhara Region, Ethiopia. Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 4(3), pp.123-137. DOI: https://doi.org/10.11648/j.aff.20150403.18
Tolla, T. (2011). Estimation of carbon stock in church forests: implications for managing Church Forest for carbon emission reduction. Unpublished MSc thesis, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-37753-2_30, works remain significant, see declaration
UNESCO. (2003). Linking Universal and Local Values: Managing a Sustainable Future for World Heritage, A Conference organized by the Netherlands National Commission for UNESCO, in collaboration with the Netherlands Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, 22- 24 May 2003, World Heritage Papers, 13, Paris. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000137777, works remain significant, see declaration
Verschuuren B, Wild R, Oviedo G, McNeely J. (2010). Sacred natural sites: Conserving nature and culture. Routledge. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248391786,
Wassie A, Sterck FJ, Bongers F. (2010). Species and structural diversity of church forests in a fragmented Ethiopian Highland landscape. J Veg Sci 21 (5): 938-948.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1654-1103.2010.01202.x, works remain significant, see declaration
Wassie, A., Teketay, D. (2006). Soil seed banks in church forests of northern Ethiopia: Implications for the conservation of woody plants. Flora 201 (1): 32-43. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.flora.2005.04.002, works remain significant, see declaration
Wassie A. (2002). Opportunities, Constraints and Prospects of EOTC in Conserving Forest Resources: The Case of Churches in South Gonder, Northern Ethiopia. [MSc Thesis]. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Skinnskatterberg, Sweden https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235602100, works remain significant, see declaration
Wassie A. (2007). Ethiopian Church Forests: Opportunities and Challenges for Restoration. [Dissertation]. Wageningen University, PUDOC, Wageningen. The Netherlands. https://treefoundation.org/2017/01/16/ethiopian-church-forests-opportunities-and-challenges-for-restoration/, works remain significant, see declaration
Wassie, A., Sterck, F.J., Teketay, D. and Bongers, F. (2009). Effects of livestock exclusion on tree regeneration in church forests of Ethiopia. Forest ecology and management, 257(3), pp.765-772.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2008.07.032, works remain significant, see declaration
Wassie, A., Teketay, D. and Powell, N.E.I.L., (2005). Church forests in the north Gonder administrative zone, northern Ethiopia. Forests, trees and livelihoods, 15(4), pp.349-373., Works remain significant, see declaration
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14728028.2005.9752536, works remain significant, see declaration
Wassie, A., Sterck, F.J., Teketay, D. and Bongers, F. (2009). Effects of livestock exclusion on tree regeneration in church forests of Ethiopia. Forest ecology and management, 257(3), pp.765-772.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2008.07.032, works remain significant, see declaration
Winberg E. (2010). Participatory Forest Management in Ethiopia: Practices and Experiences. Forestry Volunteer Food and Agriculture Organisation Sub-Regional Office for Eastern Africa, Addis Ababa. https://www.fao.org/4/aq407e/aq407e.pdf, works remain significant, see declaration
Yeshambel, M. (2013). The Role of Ethiopian Orthodox Churches and Monasteries in Forest Management Practices in Chilga and Mettema Woredas (Districts), North Gondar Zone. Int J Innov Res Dev (2): 437-446. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-Role-Of-Ethiopian-Orthodox-Churches-And-In-In-Mulat/82dd4f6ada9103b70ff2c4147444f6d87aae6c12, works remain significant, see declaration
Yirdaw E. (2001). Diversity of naturally regenerated native woody species in forest plantations in the Ethiopian Highlands. New For 22 (3): 159-177. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015629327039, works remain significant, see declaration
Yitebitu Eshetu Z, Sisay N. (2010). Ethiopian Forest Resources: Current status and future management options in view of access to carbon finances. Literature review prepared for the Ethiopian Climate Research and Networking and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Addis Ababa. https://www.un-redd.org/document-library/ethiopian-forest-resources-current-status-and-future-management-options-view, works remain significant, see declaration